Important National Events

Indigo Revolt 1859 – 60:

In this, the peasants were forced to grow indigo in their lands unwillingly by the European factory – owners.
The anger exploded in Govindpur village of Nadia district (Bengal) under Digambar Biswas & Vishnu Biswas.
Others who played important role were Harish Chandra Mukherjee (editor of the newspaper Hindu Patriot), Dinbandhu Mitra (writer of play, Neel Darpari) & Michael Madhusudan Datta (eminent Bengali poet-cum-play writer, who translated Neel Darpan into English).
The Govt appointed an Indigo Commission in 1860 and removed some of the abuse of Indigo cultivation.

The Indian National Congress

Formed in 1885 by A.O. Hume, an Englishman and a retired civil servant.
Hume’s main purpose was probably to provide a “safety valve” to the growing discontent among the educated Indians.
Other important leaders during foundation were Dadabhai Naoroji, Badrudin Tyabji, Anand Mohan Bose, R.C.Dutt, Ferozshah Mehta, G.K.Gokhale, G. Subramaniyam Aiyyar, Dinshaw Vacha, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Mahadev Govind Ranade, Madan Mohan Malviya.
First session in Bombay under WC.Banerjee in 1885 (72 delegates attended it).
In the first two decades (1885 – 1905), quite moderate in its approach and confided in British justice and generosity.
But the repressive measures of the British gave rise to extremists within Congress like Bipin Chandra Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai (Lai, Bal, Pal), along with Aurobindo Ghosh.

Partition of Bengal 1905

By Lord Curzon on October 16, 1905, through a royal Proclamation, reducing the old province of Bengal in size by creating East Bengal and Assam out of rest of Bengal.
The government said that it was done to stimulate growth in eastern region.
Actually, the objective was to set up a communal gulf between Hindus and Muslims.
A mighty upsurge swept the country against the partition. National movement found real expression in the movement against the partition of Bengal in 1905.
Rabindranath Tagore composed the national song ‘Amar sonar Bangla’ for the occasion which was sung by people everywhere. This song was adopted as national anthem by Bangladesh in 1971 after liberation from Pakistan.
The ceremony of Raksha Bandhan was observed on October 16, 1905. Hindus and Muslims tied rakhis on each other’s wrist showing solidarity.
The newspapers played a significant role in the movement. The main newspapers were K.K. Mitra’s Sanjeevani, S.N. Banerjee’s Bengali, Motilal Ghosh’s Amrit Bazar Patrika, B.B. Upadhyaya’s Yugantar, Bipin Chandra Pal’s New India, Aurobindo Ghosh’s Bande Mataram, Aji Singh’s Bharat Mata, etc.

Swadeshi Movement

Had its origin in the anti – partition movement of Bengal. The leaders of Bengal felt that mere demonstrations, public meetings and resolutions were not enoughand something more concrete was needed and the answer felt was Swadeshi and Boycott.
An important aspect of the Swadeshi movement was emphasis placed on self – reliance.
Lai, Bal, Pal, and Aurobindo Ghosh played the important role.
INC took the Swadeshi call first at the Banaras Session, 1905 presided over by G.K. Gokhale.
A resolution to boycott British goods was adopted on August 7, 1905 at a meeting of INC at Calcutta.
Bonfires of foreign goods were conducted at various places.

It began as a anti-partition agitation in Bengal and boycott was first suggested by Krishnakumar Mitra in Sanjivni in 1905. The boycott of British products was followed by the advocacy of swadeshi and to buy indigenously produced goods as a patriotic duty.

Stages of Swadeshi Movement

1905-1909
Movement confined lo Bengal & launched as a protest movement.

1909-1910
Countrywide spread of movement & launching of anti colonial movement

1910-1911
Swadeshi movement merged with revolutionary terrorist movement of first phase & led to foundation of numerous secret associations.

To encourage indigeneous industries, some Swadeshi Enterprises were setup viz. Calcutta Potteries, Bengal Chemicals and Bengal Lakshmi Cotton Mills. Swadeshi melas or lairs were held for selling handicrafts
Charkha (spinning wheel) came to typify the popular concern for country’s economic self-sufficiency.
The ‘Carlyle Circular’ withdrew giants and scholarships to educational institutions. Hence, Nationalist educational institutes were founded, e.g. Bengal Technical Institute, Bengal National College and School with Aurobindo Ghosh as its Principal
Rabindranath Tagore called for the observance of raksha-bandhan as a symbol of brotherhood
A large number of volunteer bodies or Samitis were founded. Swadesh Bandhav Samiti of Barisal founded by Ashwini Dint was the largest.
Anushilan Society had two branches. Pulin Das led the Dacca branch. Birendra Ghosh and Jatin Banerjee led the Calcutta Branch.

Impact of Swadeshi Movement

Swadeshi movement was stepping stone of Nationalist movement. which led to beginning of organized political movement in India.
Rise of Neo-Nationalists movement
Surat split
Revival of indigenous industries
Boycott of foreign goods Cultural
Revival & emergence of nationalist art & literature
Concept of national education

Regional Variations

Bihar and United Provinces were quiet
B C Pal in Madras led Vande Mat ram Movement.
Lala Lajpal Rai and Ajit Singh led the movement in Punjab
Tilak began the Swadesh Vastra Pracharni Sabine
Savarkar founded the Mitra Mela
Tilak was imprisoned for 6 years in Mandalay jail and was released in 1914.

Leaders & Journals

Bipin Pal - New Indio
B Upadhyaya - Sandhya
Barinder Ghosh - Yugantar
K K Mitra - Sanjivini
Ajit Singh - Bharat Mata

Most Important Achievement

“ A leap forward” because hitherto untouched sections participated, major trends of‘ later movement emerged; richness of the movement extended to culture, science and literature; people educated in bolder form of politics; colonial hegemony undermined.

Failure of Swadeshi Movement

Severe government repression. .
Lack of effective organization of all leaders
Spin in nationalist ranks
The Swadeshi leaders refrained from rallying the peasants.
Narrow social base.

Acts Passed by the Government to Suppress the Movement

Seditious meetings Act (1907)
Criminal Law (Amendment) Act (1008)
Indian Newspapers (Incitement lo Offences) Act (1908)
Explosive Substances Act (1908)
Indian Press Act (1910)

Muslim League 1906

Setup in 1906 under the leadership of Aga Khan, Nawab Salimullah of Dhaka and Nawab Mohsin – ul – Mulk.
It was a loyalist, communal and conservative political organization which supported the partition of Bengal, opposed the Swadeshi movement, demanded special saieguards of its community and a separate electorate for Muslims.
Swaraj : In December 1906 at Calcutta, the INC under Dadabhai Naorojiadopted ‘Swaraj’ (Self – Government) as the goal of Indian people.

The partition scheme and the subsequent Swadeshi Movement were followed by the formation of the All India Muslim League towards the end of 1 906 by Aga Khan, the Nawab of Dacca and Nawab Mohsinul Mulk It consisted of a group of big Zamindars, ex-bureaucrats and other upper class Muslims.
The factors that the helped the growth of Muslim separatism, were— the surfacing of Hindu revivalist tendencies during the Swadeshi movement, The British propaganda that the partition of Bengal would benefit the Muslims and the spurt in communal violence.
Later, Muslim League came to be dominated by Young Turks who nursed anti-British feelings. Britain had refused to aid Turkey in the Balkan Wars (191 1 - 1 2) and had rejected University Status to the Aligarh College.
In 1928, the Muslim League rejected the Nehru Report, as it did not incorporate all their demands. This led to the estrangement of Jinnah, who called it a ‘Parting of the Ways ‘with the Congress and formulated his infamous fourteen points (including separate-electorates, reservation of seats in the center and provinces, reservation of jobs for Muslims, creation of new Muslim majority provinces, etc.) which became the text of the communal demands.
1 939, Dec 22—The Muslim League observes the resignation of the Congress ministries as Deliverance Day.
1 940, March—Lahore session of the Muslim League passes the Pakistan Resolution.
On Dec 1 943 the Karachi session of the Muslim League adopts the slogan ‘ Divide and Quit’.

Surat Session of Indian National Congress

The INC split into two groups -The extremists and The moderates, at the Surat session in 1907. Extremists were led by Bal, Pal, Lai while the moderates by G.K. Gokhale.
Controversy rose over the elected president, Ras Bihari Ghosh, as extremists didn’t accept him. Extremists wanted Lala Lajpat Rai to be chosen.
The government after this launched a massive attack on extremists by suppressing their newspapers and arresting their leaders.

The Indian Councils act

Minto Morley Reforms 1909

Besides other constitutional measures, it envisaged a separate electorate for Muslims.
Aimed at dividing the nationalist ranks and at rallying the Moderates and the Muslims to the Government’s side.

Ghadar Party of India 1913

Formed by Lala Hardayal, Taraknath Das and Sohan Singh Bhakna.
The name was taken from a weekly paper, Ghadar, which had been started on November 1, 1913 to commemorate the 1857 revolt.
HQ was at San Francisco.
The outbreak of the First World War provided the Ghadarites with an opportunity to free India from a Government which was indifferent to their cause.
They began to return to India in thousands for a co – ordinated revolt in collaboration with the Bengal revolutionaries. Their plan was foiled at the last moment due to treachery.

Komagata Maru Incident 1914

Komagata Maru was the name of a ship which carried a shipload of Sikh and Muslim immigrants from Punjab to Vancouver, Canada.
But the Canadian immigration authorities turned them back after months of uncertainty.
The ship finally anchored at Calcutta on September 29, 1914.
But the inmates refused to board the Punjab bound train and there was a clash with the police in which 22 persons died.
This incidence fired up the revolutionary activities which sought to avenge the death of the innocents.

Morley-Minto Reforms

Numbers of elected members in Imperial and Provincial Legislate
Councils increased—elected non-officials still in minority.
Separate electorates introduced for Muslims.
Elected non-officials to be elected indirectly—thus elections introduce for the lust time.
Legislatures could pass resolutions, ask questions an supplementaries. vote separate items of the budget. No responsibility entrusted to the legislators
One Indian to be on viceroy’s executive council.
Aimed at dividing the nationalist ranks and at rallying the Moderate and the Muslims to the Government’s side.

Anti-Rowlatt Satyagrah

The 1919 sedition Committee headed by Justice Rowlatt, led to the Rowlatt Act (18 March 1919) whereby war time restrictions of civil rights were to he made permanent by

a) System of special courts
b) Detention without trial for 2 years maximum
c) Greater police powers.

This Act authorized the Government to imprison any person without trial and conviction of the court of law.
This law also enabled the Government to suspend the right of Habeas Corpus, which had been the foundation of civil liberties in Britain.
Anti-Rowlatt Satyagraha intended to mobilize public opinion against the Act.
It was first countrywide agitation by Gandhi & marked the foundation of Non Cooperation Movement.
During March & April 1919, the country witnessed a remarkable political awakening in India. There were hartals, strikes, processions & demonstrations.
On April 13-1919 (Baisakhi Day). Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Satyapal were addressing a peaceful rally in Jallianwala Bagh when General Dyer ordered for the infamous massacre
The Hunter Commission’s report on the Punjab disturbances was described by Gandhi as a ‘white wash’.
Tagore returned his knighthood in protest.
Sardar Udham Singh who took the name of Ram Mohammed Singh murdered Dowyer in England

Individual Satyagraha

With the failure of the British govt. to measure up to the demands, there were two opinions in Congress about the launching of civil disobedience. Gandhi fell that the atmosphere was not in favour of civil disobedience as there were differences and indiscipline within the Congress. However, the Congress Socialists and the All India Kisan Sabha were in favour of immediate struggle. Convinced that the British would not modify their policy in India, (the Congress having rejected the August Offer), Gandhi decided to start the Individual Satyagraha.

The very reason for confining the movement to individual participation was that neither Gandhi nor the Congress wished to hamper the War effort and this was not possible in a mass movement. Even the aim of the Satyagraha was a limited one i.e. to disprove the British claim of India supporting the War effort whole-heartedly.

On 17 October 1940 Vinoba Bhave became the first satyagrahi followed by Nehru.

August Offer, 1940

The Viceroy (Linlithgow) put forward a proposal that included:

Dominion Status in the unspecified future
A post-war body to enact the constitution
Expansion of Governor-General’s Council with representation of the Indians,
Establishing a War Advisory Council.

In this offer he promised the Muslim League and other minorities that the British Government would never agree to a constitution or government in India, which did not enjoy their support (the Muslim League had demanded Pakistan in its Lahore session of 1940). The Congress rejected this offer because:

There was no suggestion for a national government and because the demand for Dominion Status was already discarded in favour of Puma Swaraj
It encouraged anti-Congress forces like the Muslim League.

The Cripps Mission

Under the pressure of Allies and the need for gestures to win over Indian public opinion, the British were forced to offer reconciliatory measures. After the fall of Rangoon to the Japanese the British decided to send the Cripps Mission to India for constitutional proposals, which included:

Dominion status to be granted after the war with the right to secede (Any province could, if it so desired, remain outside the Indian Union and negotiate directly with Britain)
Consitution making body to be elected from Provincial Assemblies and Princes’ nominees alter the War
Individual princes could sign a separate agreement with the British which in effect accommodated the Pakistan Demand
British would however, control the defence for war period.

The Congress did not want to rely upon future promises. It wanted a responsible government with full powers and also a control over the country’s defence. Gandhi termed the proposals as a post dated cheque in a crashing bank. Cripps Mission failed to satisfy Indian nationalists & turned out to be merely a propaganda device for US & Chinese consumption.

But above all the Cripps Proposals brought in “Pakistan” through the backdoor via the “local option” clause. Though the Cripps Mission failed, Cripps’ proposals provided legitimacy to the Pakistan demand by accommodating it in their provision for provincial autonomy.

Home Rule Movement

After Tilak’s return, having served sentence of six years in Mandalay, he tried securing the readmission of himself and other Extremists into the Indian National Congress. With the need being felt for popular pressure to attain concessions, disillusionment with Morley-Minto Reforms and wartime miseries, Tilak and Annie Besant readied to assume leadership. The Home Rule League was pioneered on lines of a similar movement in Ireland.

Objective

Self Government for India in British Empire
“Work for National Education. Social & Political reforms. Tilak linked up the question of swaraj with the demand for the formation of linguistic states and education in vernacular. He also used Home Rule lo put an end to caste feeling among the common people and advocated abolition of untouchability.
Tilak (April) and Annie Besant & S. Subramaniam Iyer (September) established Home Rule Leagues in 1916.
Tilak’s League was lo work in Maharashtra. Karnataka. Central Provinces and Berar and Annie Besant’s in the rest of India
Annie Besant set up the newspapers— New India. Commonweal and Young India (1916)
Tilak published —Mahratta & Kesari
Jamnadas Dwatkadas. Shankarlal Banker. Indulal Yagnik. George Arundale. B P Wadia and L P Ramaswamy Iyer were in Besant’s League.
Home Rule Movement declined after Besant accepted the proposed Montford Reforms and Tilak went to Britain lo light the Libel suit against Valentine Chirol's Indian Unrest.

Methods

Create public opinion in favour of Home Rule through public meeting, also organising discussions, reading rooms propaganda through public meetings, newspapers. pamphlets, posters, etc.
Positive Gains Emphasis shifted to the masses permanently organizational link established between town and country prepared a generation of ardent nationalists, influenced Moderate-Extremist reunion at Lucknow (1916)
Lucknow Session-1916 (Presided by Ambika Charan Mazumdar ) Lucknow Pact 119(6) was signed between the INC and the Muslim League. The mam provisions (a) Principle of separate electorates was accepted, (b) Demand for a representative government and Dominion Status for India.

Results

The movement marks the beginning for attainment of Swaraj
It discredited moderates of INC and created condition for readmission of Neo-Nationalists in 1916
Montague Declaration of 1917—Greatest political achievement
Education Programme

Non Cooperation and Khilafat Movement

During the First World War, Turkey was allied with Germany and Austria against the British. The Indian Muslims regarded the Sultan of Turkey as their spiritual leader, Khalifa, so naturally they sympathized with Turkey, After the War, the British removed the Khalifa from power and fragmented Turkey. Hence, the Muslims started the Khilafat movement in India for the restoration of the Khalifa’s position. The demands were —Khalifa’s control should be retained over the Muslim sacred places. After the post-war territorial adjustments, the Khalifa should be left with sufficient territories.

Khilafat Movement in India

The Khilafat issue was not directly linked with politics in India but the Khilafat leaders (Ali Brothers, Maulana Azad. Hakim Ajmal Khan & Hasrat Mohani) were eager in enlisting the support of Hindus. Gandhi saw in this, an opportunity to bring about Hindu-Muslim unity against the British. The publication of the terms of the Treaty with Turkey, which were very harsh, and also the publication of the Hunter Committee Report on ‘Punjab disturbances’ in May 1920 infuriated the Indians. Thus at one level Indian political situation also merged with the issue of Khilafat. Initially the Khilafat Leaders limited their actions to meetings, petitions, and deputations in favour of the Khilafat. Later a militant trend emerged, demanding an active agitation such as slopping all cooperation with the British. The Central Khilafat Committee met at Allahabad. The meeting was attended by a number of Congress and Khilafat leaders. In this meeting a programme of non-cooperation towards the government was declared. This was to include

boycott of titles conferred by the Government,
boycott of civil services, army and police, i.e. all government jobs.
non-payment of taxes to the Government.
August I, 1920 was fixed as the dale to start the movement.

The Non-Cooperation Movement

It was the 1st Mass based political movement under Gandhi.
The Movement was launched as per resolution of Calcutta session & ratified in Nagpur session Dec 1920. Anti-Rowlatt Agitation. Jalianwala Bagh tragedy, Khilafat. Movement, General economic, distress during & after the war were the reasons of Non-Cooperation Movement
The Tilak Swarajya Fund was started to finance the Non-Cooperation Movement.

The main emphasis of the movement was on boycott of schools, colleges, law courts and advocacy of the use of Charkha. There was widespread student unrest and top lawyers like C R Das and Motilal Nehru gave up their legal practice. Thereafter, the stress was on boycott of foreign cloth and boycott of the forthcoming visit of the Prince of Wales in November, 1921; popularization of Charkha and Khadi and Jail Bharo by Congress volunteers.
Swaraj or self-rule, Redressal of Punjab wrongs & Khilafat issue were demanded through Non-Cooperation Movement
Non-Cooperation Movement progressed powerfully from January 1920 to Early February 1922.
From November 192 I, a shift towards radicalism was visible. Gandhi decided to launch a no-revenue campaign at Bardoli, and also a mass civil disobedience movement for freedom of speech, press and association.
The attack on a local police station by angry peasants at Chauri Chaura, in Gorakhpur district of UP, on February 5, 1922. changed the whole situation. Gandhi, shocked by this incident, withdrew the Non-Cooperation Movement.

Spread of NCM

United Provinces

United Provinces became a strong base of the Gandhian Non-Cooperation Movement. Organised non-cooperation was an affair of cities and small towns In the countryside the movement got entangled with the kisan movement. The peasants rose in revolt not only against Talukdars but also, against merchants with widespread agrarian-riots under the leadership of Baba Ram Chandra In late 1 921, ‘Eka’ movement under Mac/an Pan started. Demand was conversion of produce rents into cash

Punjab

Akali movement for reform and control of the Gurudwaras got closely identified with non-cooperation. Udasi Sikh Mahants, who managed Gurudwaras, had issued Hukumnamas against Ghadrites & honoured Dyer. Akalis were led by Kartar Singh Jhabbar, Master Tara Singh and Baba kharak Singh (head of SGPC). The Shrromani Gurudwara Prabandha Committee was founded by the Shiromam Akali Dal

Maharashtra

Non-cooperation remained relatively weak because the Tilakites were unenthusiastic about Gandhi. Non-Brahmins too felt that the Congress was a Chitpavan-led affair

Andhra

The Non-Cooperation Movement attained great success in the Andhra delta area Alluri Sitaram Raju organised the tribals in Andhra and combined their demands with those of the Non-Cooperation Movement. Temple Entry for Ezhavas and Pulayas was led by Sri Narayan Guru, NK Asan and TK Madhavan. In 1 924, Vaikom Satyagraha in Travancore was led by KP Kesava Menon.

Civil Disobedience Movement

After the Indian National Congress authorized Gandhiji to start Civil Disobedience Movement, he placed Eleven Point Ultimatum to Irwin (31 Jan 1930) for administrative reforms and stated that if Lord Irwin accepted them there would be no need for agitation. Civil Disobedience Movement started with the Dandi March on 12th March. Salt production had geographical limitations. So in other parts of the country the movement included:

Picketing of liquor shops and auctions
No revenue campaign in Bardoli
Forest Satyagrahas
Large scale resignation of rural officials
Refusal of chaukidari lax
Prabhat Pheris-singing of national songs
Patrikas-distribution of illegal pamphlets

11-Point Ultimatum

1. Reduce expenditure on Army & civil services
2. Introduce total prohibition.
3. Carry out reforms in Criminal Investigation Department (C.I.D)
4. Change Arms Act allowing popular control of issue of licences.
5 . Release political prisoners
6. Accept Postal Reservation Bill
7. Reduce rupee-sterling exchange ratio
8. Introduce textile protection
9. Reserve coastal shipping for Indians.
10. Reduce land revenue
11. Abolish salt tax

First Round Table Conference (1931)

First ever conference arranged between the British & Indians as equals

Congress and most business leaders kept away.
Muslim League— represented by Mohammed Ali, Agha Khan. Fazlul Haq and Jinnah.
Hindu Mahasabha— represented by Moonje and Jayakar.
Liberals— represented by Sapru, Chintamani and Srinivas Sastri.
Princes—represented by Akbar Hydari and Mirza Ismail, the Dewans of Hyderabad and Mysore respectively.

With Incidents of rising violence and with majority of leading Congress leaders behind bars Gandhiji called for rather sudden retreat. He initiated a talk with Irwin. which culminated in the Delhi Pact of 5th March popularly called Gandhi- Irwin pact.

Timeline of Civil Disobedience Movement

12 Mar, 1930 - Dandi March was undertaken from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi.
Apr, 1930 - Chittagong Armoury was raided by Surya Sen
Jan 1931 - First Round ‘fable Conference
5 Mar, 1931 -‘Delhi Pact’ signed between Viceroy Irwin and Gandhi
23 Mar 1931 - Bhagat Singh. Rujguru and Sukhdev were executed.
Mar 1931 - (Karachi Congress) It accepted Delhi Pact. Civil Disobedience Movement was withdrawn. The session also passed the resolution for Fundamental Rights and the Economic Policy.

Sept-Dec 1931 - Gandhi participated in Second Session of the Round Table Conference
Dec 1931 - Gandhi returned and launched CDM but the movement was brutally suppressed by force
Apr 1934 - The movement was withdrawn formally

Delhi Pact (Gandhi-Irwin Pact)

Irwin agreed to release all political prisoners except those who were engaged in violence.
Right to make salt in coastal villages for personal consumption.
Gandhi agreed to suspend CDM and participate in 2nd of RTC.

Second Round Table Conference

Gandhi agreed to attend the second Round Table Conference scheduled to be held m September 1931. He demanded control over defence & foreign affairs. Hindu Mahasabha demanded federal responsibility which was opposed by Muslim League & the Princes. Ambedkar demanded separate electorates for Dalits which was opposed by Gandhi. The Government refused to concede the basic nationalist demand of freedom on the basis of immediate grant of dominion status.

Communal Award And Poona Pact

On August 16. 1932 McDonald announced the proposal on minority representation, known as the ”Communal Award” which recommended:

to double the existing seals in provincial legislatures.
to retain the system of separate electorate for the minorities.
to grant weightage to Muslims in provinces where they were in minority.
to reserve 3% seats for women in all provincial legislatures except in N WFP
to recognize depressed classes as minority community and make them entitled to the right of separate electrode,
to allocate seats to labour, landlords, and traders and industrialists.

Gandhi’s objections

Gandhi reacted strongly to the proposal of granting the right of separate electorates to the Depressed Classes. He regarded the Depressed Classes as an integral part of Hindu society. He thought what was required was not protection of the depressed classes but root & branch eradication of untouchability. He had pinned his hopes for their welfare in the firm belief that the Hindus would do full social justice to fully integrate them within their fold. He demanded that the depressed classes be elected through a joint & if possible a wider electorate through universal franchise.

To persuade the recalcitrant Ambedkar to accept his viewpoint, Gandhi, then in the Yarvada Jail, resorted to fast unto death. In an anxiety to save his life,the Poona Pact with the following main terms was concluded between him and Ambedkar on 25 September 1932.

seats were to be allotted to the depressed classes in the provincial legislatures as against 71 promised by the Communal Award & 18 % of the total in central legislature.
Adequate representation for the depressed classes in the civil services.
Ambedkar also accepted the principle of joint electorate.

Third Round Table Conference

Third Round Table Conference was scheduled to be held in London (1932). The congress did not participate in it. The discussions led to the passing of the Government of India Act. 1935.

Comparision with Non Cooperation Movement

Launched to attain Puma Swaraj and not merely to remedy wrongs..
It involved deliberate violation of law and not merely non-cooperation
In the initial phase urban people participated but it spread to rural areas where it gained its maximum strength.
Little Muslim and labour participation
Women participated on a large scale to picket shops

Regional Spread

Chittagong: 1 8 th April, armoury raid by Surya Sen.
Peshawar: 2 3 April. Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan’s Khudai Khidmatgar activated the NWFP leading to rioting where the Hindu Gharwal rifles refused to fire on Muslim masses.
Sholapur. news of Gandhis arrest (4th May) led to working class strike form 7 th to 17 th May.
Darshana salt works (21 May) satyagraha led by Sarojini Naidu, Imam Saheb and Maniklal Gandhi.
Madras: Rajagopala Chari led the March from Trichinopoly to Vedaranniyam.
Kerala K Kelappan marched from Calicut to Payannur. Central Provinces had forest satyagrahas

Gandhi’s Harijan Campaign

Gandhiji withdrew from the Civil Disobedience Movement to focus on Harijan welfare. After the Poona Pact Gandhi started an All India Anti- Untouchability League and the weekly newspaper, Harijan.

Harijan welfare work by Gandhians indirectly helped to spread the message of nationalism down to the most oppressed sections of rural society.

Gandhi confined the Harijan Campaign to limited social reform (opening of wells, roads, and particularly temples plus humanitarian work) delinking it from any economic demands (though many Harijans were agricultural labourers), and also refusing to attack caste as a whole. The Harijan Movement was formally withdrawn in April 1934

Impact of CDM

The Congress swept the polls in most provinces in 1937
The Left alternative emerged, for the Movement had aroused expectations, which Gandhian strategy could not fulfill
At the level of leadership, Nehru and Bose voiced the new mood, emphasising the need to combine nationalism with radical social and economic programmes.
Some Congress activists formed a socialist group within the party in 1 934.
Kisan Sabhas with anti-zamindar programmes developed rapidly in provinces like Bihar and Andhra.

Quit India Movement

In the backdrop of the failure of Cripps Mission, imminent Japanese threat, the British attitude towards Indians who were left behind in Burma and the prevailing anger and hostility to an alien and meaningless war, Quit India resolution was passed on 8 August 1942 at Gowalia Tank, Bombay. Gandhi told the British to quit and “leave India in God’s hand”. His message was ‘Do or Die’.

In the initial stages, the Movement was based on nonviolent lines. Repressive policy of the government and Indiscriminate arrests of the leaders provoked people to violence. (Nehru was lodged in Almoru jail, Maulana Azad in Bankura and Gandhi in Agha Khan ‘& palace, Poona). Further, it was the only all-India movement, which was leader less. In many areas, the government lost all control and the people established Swaraj.

Main Events

Parallel governments were established in Satara— (Prati Sarkar under Nana Patil), Talcher (Orissa), parts of eastern U.P and Bihar.
In Bengal, Tamluk Jatiya Sarkar functioned in Midnapore district. This national government had various departments like Law and Order, Health, Education. Agriculture, etc. along with a postal system of its own and arbitration courts.
The Movement had initially been strong in the urban areas but soon it was the populace of rural areas, which kept the banner of revolt aloft-for a longer time.
The trend of underground revolutionary activity also started during this phase. Jaya Prakash Narain and Ramnandan Misra escaped from Hazaribagh Jail and organised an underground movement.
In Bombay, the Socialist leaders continued their underground activities under leaders like Aruna Asaf Ali. The most daring act of the underground movement was the establishment of Congress Radio with Usha Mehta as its announcer. The participation was on many levels. School & College students remained in the forefront. women actively participated and workers went on strikes. Though, peasants concentrated their offence on symbols of authority, there was complete absence of anti zamindar violence. There were no communal clashes during the movement. Repression was severe. The Movement did not evoke much response from the merchant community. In fact, most of the Capitalists and merchants had profited heavily during the War. The Muslim League kept aloof and the Hindu Mahasabha condemned the Movement. The Communist Party of India due to its “People’s War” line did not support the movement. The Indian Princes and the landlords were supporting the War effort and therefore did not sympathize with the movement. Some Congress leaders like Rajagopalachari also did not participate.

Freedom-final stage

Rajagopalachari Formula (1945)

In 1944, C Rajagopalachari proposed that after the termination of the war, a Commission could be appointed for demarcating contiguous districts in the north-west and east where Muslims were in absolute majority. In the areas thus demarcated, a plebiscite would be held on the basis of adult suffrage that would ultimately decide the issue of separation from Hindustan. If the majority decided in favour of forming a separate Sovereign State, such decision could be accepted.

In case of acceptance of partition, agreement to be made jointly for safeguarding defence, commerce, communications etc. The above terms would to be operative only if England transferred full powers to India.

Muslim League was expected to endorse the Congress demand for independence and co-operate with it in the formation of provisional government for the intrerim period.

Jinnah objected, as he wanted congress to accept two-nation theory & wanted only Muslims of the northwest and east of India to vote in the plebiscite. Hindu leaders led by V.D Savarkar condemned the plan.

Shimla Conference (June-July 1945)

Proposed by Wavell.
Talks suggested setting up of a new Executive council with only Indian members. The Viceroy and the Commander in chief would be the only non-Indian members of the council
‘Caste Hindus’ and- Muslims would have equal representation the executive would work within the existing constitution (i.e. not responsible to the central Assembly) but the door was kept open for discussions on a new constitution.

The Congress, headed by Maulana Azad, resented being characterized as a caste Hindu organization. Talks broke down due to Jinnah’s demand for the Muslim League to have absolute choice in choosing all Muslim members and a demand for communal veto, though it had ministries only in Assam and Sind.

The dissolution of the conference gave Jinnah the Communal Veto in effect. Thereafter, the satisfaction of the League became a pre-requisite to any major settlement.

Cabinet Mission (March-June 1946)

Members - Pethwick Lawrence (secretary of Stale), Stafford Cripps and Alexander.

The Mission rejected the demand for a full-fledged Pakistan (Comprising the whole of all the Muslim majority areas). The Mission reasoned that the right of communal self-determination, if conceded to Muslims, also had to be granted to non-Muslims who formed majorities in West Bengal and Eastern Punjab, as well as in Assam proper. The ‘truncated’ or smaller Pakistan was unacceptable to the League.

The Plan proposed

Rejection of the demand for a full fledged Pakistan.
For a very loose union of all the Indian territories under a centre that would control merely the defence, the Foreign Affairs and the Communications, leaving all other subjects to the existing provincial legislatures.
Provincial legislatures would elect a Constituent Assembly. The members would divide up into three sections— A,B & C while electing the constitutes Assembly. All these sections would have the authority to draw up provincial constitutions and even group constitutions.

Section A- Non Muslim Majority provinces (Bombay, United Provinces, Bihar, Central Provinces, Orissa, Madras)

Section B - Muslim majority provinces in the north-west (Sind, NWFP & Punjab)

Section C - Muslim majority provinces in North east (Bengal, Assam)

Communal questions in Central legislature were to be decided by a simple majority in both communities
Provinces were to have full autonomy & residual powers
Princely stales were no longer to be under paramountcy of British Government.
After the first general elections, a province could come out of a group and after 10 years a province could call for reconsideration of the group or union constitution
Each group had powers to set up intermediate level legislature and executive on their own.

The plan failed on the issue of the nature of grouping — Jinnah was for compulsory while Nehru was for grouping only till the formation of a constituent assembly. On 29th July 1946 Jinnah withdrew his earlier acceptance of the plan and fixed 16 August 1946 as Diner Action Day. Calcutta, Noakhali, Garmukteshwar were the storm centres. Communal massacre weakened the Congress position in the NWFP.

Interim government

Came into existence on 2nd September 1946, in accordance with Cabinet Mission’s proposal and was headed by J L Nehru. Muslim League refused to join it initially.
Wavell persuaded the League leaders to join on 26 October 1946.
8th December 1946 — Constituent Assembly begins its session with Liaqat Ali Khan of Muslim League as the Finance Minister
The Interim government, obstructed by its League members and bureaucracy was reduced to a figurehead and was unable to control the communal carnage.

Attlee’s Announcement

Prime Minister Atlee on 20 February 1947 announced that the British would withdraw from India by 30 June, 1948 and that Lord Mountbatten would replace Wavell. British powers & obligations vis-a-vis the princely states would lapse with transfer of power but these would not be transferred to any successor Government in British India. Partition of the country was implicit in the provision that if the constituent assembly was not fully representative then power would be transferred to more than one central govt.

Mountbatten Plan (3rd June Plan)

His earlier Plan Balkan was abandoned for the 3rd June Plan.

The Plan declared that power would be handed over by 15 August 1947 on the basis of dominion status to India and Pakistan.
Mountbatten supported the Congress stand that the princely states must not be given the option of independence. They would either join India or Pakistan
Boundary commission was to be headed by Radcliffe and the award was to be announced after Republic day (which was a major cause of massacres)
Punjab & Bengal Legislative Assemblies would meet in two groups, Hindu’s & Muslims, to vote for partition. If a simple majority of either group voted for partition, then these provinces would be artitioned. In case of partition, two dominions & two constituent assemblies would be created.

Indian Independence Act, 1947

Implemented on 15th August 1947 and Sovereignty of British Parliament was abolished. Dominions of India and Pakistan were created. Each dominion to have a Governor - General. Pakistan was to comprise Sind, British Baluchistan, NWFP, West Punjab and East Bengal

Integration of States

By 1 5 August all except Kashmir, Hyderabad and Junagadh had signed the Instrument of Accession with India, and Bhawalpur with Pakistan. Goa was with the Portugese and Pondicherry with the French.

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